Sex Determination By Amplification Of Amelogenin Gene From...

Sex determination by amplification of Amelogenin gene from dental pulp tissue by PCR Abstract Introduction: Forensic odontology necessarily involves the application of dentistry along with various other branches of sciences to resolve criminal cases with legal issues. Sex determination is a part of forensic odontology and an en essential priority when traditional identification of the deceased becomes impossible due to certain mishaps, including natural calamities, acts of war and terrorism or criminal cases of homicide and mutilation of bodies. Aim: To determine Sex by analysis of the Amelogenin gene using PCR method on DNA isolated from dental pulp, which was exposed to various environmental conditions created artificially to mimic a forensic scenario. Materials and Method: This in-vitro study was conducted by subjecting extracted teeth to various conditions imitating a forensic scene, viz. desiccation at room temperatures, immersion in salt water, burial in soil and even exposing to temperatures of 150 Â ºC, 250 Â ºC, 350 Â ºC. DNA was extracted from dental pulp tissue and sex determination was achieved by amplification of the amelogenin gene through AMEL gene based primers in PCR. Result: Among all the samples used in this study, DNA could be extracted from all, except from those that were subjected to a temperature of 350 Â ºC. DNA amplification and sex determination of the samples were found to be accurate when compared to known data. Conclusion: This study shows teeth to be

Middle East Conflict Essay - 859 Words

There is no set definition for the area known as the Middle East since shifts in global power over the years have affected the topography. Now, however, the region can expansively be said to contain â€Å"the area from Libya E to Afghanistan, usually including Egypt, Sudan, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the other countries of the Arabian peninsula† (dictionary.com). This geographical definition can be said to contain both the ‘Near East’, ‘Middle East’, and even farther to the East and into Africa be described as the ‘Greater Middle East’, so the Middle East can only be loosely defined, and it is important to know that these countries are separate and do not truly form one cooperative unit. It is†¦show more content†¦In November of 1914, the Ottoman Empire neglected their neutrality, as the United States was to do later, and declared a jihad (holy war) against the Triple Entente. This resulted in an attack of the Suez Canal in February of 1915 which ended in failure; however it changed many things that could have happened in the war, such as forcing Britain to change its military stratagems. From 1915 to 1920, the Ottoman Empire’s war against Great Britain was mainly unsuccessful, resulting in a Triple Entente army conquering the city of Jerusalem on December 11th, 1917 (BBC). Since it was mainly the British army which was fighting in the area, and the other two powers were out of commission after the war, the fall of the Ottoman Empire was the beginning of British rule in the area and the start of much instability and conflict in the region, which has continued into today. Also in this time period some promises were made by the British which were at odds with each other, the most notable being the Balfour Declaration in November of 1917. In 1916 Britain had secretly made an agreement with France to split the land in the Ottoman Empire when it was conquered, yet later that same year, The McMahon Correspondences promise independence to parts of the region. These contradictory secret promises are confused yet more with the Balfour Declaration in which Britain pu blically declares support for a Jewish state in Palestine. In the years between World War I and the endShow MoreRelated The Middle East: Conflict in Journalism Essay1619 Words   |  7 PagesThe Middle East: Conflict in Journalism Before beginning my essay, â€Å"The Middle East, Conflict in Journalism†, I would like the reader to read a few terms. These are merely food for thought, do whatever with them you wish. Conflict: A state of disharmony between incompatible or antithetical persons, ideas, or interests; a clash. (The American Heritage) War: A state of open, armed, often prolonged conflict carried on between nations, states, or parties. 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The Return Midnight Chapter 26 Free Essays

â€Å"Now you know how it’s done?†Elena asked Meredith. â€Å"You put the key in the keyhole and say where you want to go. Then open the door and go through. We will write a custom essay sample on The Return: Midnight Chapter 26 or any similar topic only for you Order Now That’s it.† â€Å"You three go first,†Stefan added. â€Å"And quick.† â€Å"I’l turn the key,†Meredith told Matt. â€Å"You take care of Mrs. Flowers.† Just then Elena thought of something that she didn’t want to say aloud, only to Stefan. But she and he were physical y so close, she knew he would pick it up. Saber! she thought to Stefan. We can’t leave him to these malach! We won’t, she heard Stefan’s voice in her head say. I showed him the way to Matt’s house, and told him to go there and take Talon and protect the people who will be coming. At the same time Matt was saying, â€Å"Oh, my God! Saber! He saved my life – I can’t just leave him.† â€Å"Already taken care of,†Stefan reassured him and Elena patted him on the back. â€Å"He’l be at your house in a little while, and if you go somewhere else he’l track you.† Elena turned her pats into gentle pushes. â€Å"Be good!† â€Å"Matt Honeycutt’s bedroom in Fel ‘s Church,†Meredith said, thrusting the key at the door handle, and opening the door. She and Mrs. Flowers and Matt al stepped forward. The door shut. Stefan turned to Elena. â€Å"I’m going first,†he said flatly. â€Å"But I’m holding on to you. I’m not going to let you go.† â€Å"Never let me go, never let me go,†Elena whispered in an imitation of Misao’s â€Å"Have nightmares.†Then she had a thought. â€Å"Slave bracelets!† â€Å"What?†Stefan said. Then, â€Å"Oh, I remember, you told me. But what are they supposed to look like?† â€Å"Like any two bracelets, matching if possible.†Elena was scrambling around the back of the room, where furniture was piled up, opening drawers, closing them. â€Å"Come on, bracelets! Come on! This house is supposed to have everything!† â€Å"What about these things you wear in your hair?†Stefan asked. Elena looked back and he tossed her a bag of soft cotton ponytail holders. â€Å"You’re a genius! They won’t even hurt my wrists. And here are two white ones so they’l match!†Elena said happily. They arranged themselves in front of the door, with Stefan to Elena’s left so he could see what was out there before they stepped in. He also had a firm grip on Elena’s left arm. â€Å"Wherever our friend Bonnie McCul ough is,†Stefan said, and thrust the key into the lockless door handle, turning it. Then, after giving Elena the key, he gingerly opened the door. Elena wasn’t sure what she was expecting. A blaze of light maybe, as they traveled through dimensions. Some kind of spiraling tunnel, or shooting stars. At least a feeling of motion. What she got was steam. It soaked through her T-shirt and dampened her hair. And then she got noise. â€Å"Elena! Eleeeeeeeeeeeeeeena! You’re here! â€Å" Elena recognized the voice but couldn’t locate the screamer in the steam. Then she saw an immense bathtub made of tiles of malachite, and a frightened-looking girl tending a charcoal fire at the bath’s foot, while two other young attendants holding scrubbing brushes and pumice stones cowered against the other wal . And in the bath was Bonnie! It was obvious that the tub was very deep, because Bonnie wasn’t able to touch bottom in the middle but she was half-leaping out of the water like a foam-covered dolphin over and over to attract attention. â€Å"There you are,†gasped Elena. She dropped to her knees on a thick, soft blue rug. Bonnie made a spectacular leap and just for a moment Elena could feel a smal soapy, sudsy body in her arms. Then Bonnie went down again and came up laughing. â€Å"And is that Stefan? It’s Stefan! Stefan, hello! Helloooo! â€Å" Stefan glanced back, as if trying to assess the suds situation. He seemed satisfied with it, turned slightly, and waved. â€Å"Hey, Bonnie?†he asked, voice muffled by the sounds of continual splashing. â€Å"Where are we?† â€Å"It’s Lady Ulma’s house! You’re safe – you’re al safe!†She turned a smal hopeful face to Elena. â€Å"Where’s Meredith?† Elena shook her head, thinking of al the things about Meredith that Bonnie didn’t know yet. Well, she decided, this wasn’t the time to mention them. â€Å"She had to stay behind, to protect Fel ‘s Church.† â€Å"Oh,†Bonnie looked down, troubled. â€Å"Stillbad, is it?† â€Å"You wouldn’t believe it. Real y; it’s – indescribable. That’s where Matt and Mrs. Flowers and Meredith are. I’m sorry.† â€Å"No, I’m just so glad to see you! Oh my God, but you’re hurt.†She was looking at the smal tooth wounds on Elena’s arm, and the blood on her torn T-shirt. â€Å"I’l get out and – hey, no, you get in! There’s plenty of room; plenty of hot water, and†¦ plenty of clothes! Lady Ulma even designed some for us, for ‘when we came back’!† Elena, smiling reassuringly at the bath girls, was already stripping as fast as she could. The tub, which was big enough for six to swim in, looked too luxurious to miss and, she reasoned, it made sense to be clean when you greeted your hostess. â€Å"Go have fun,†she shouted to Stefan. â€Å"Is Damon here?†she added in a whispered aside to Bonnie, who nodded. â€Å"Damon’s here, too,†Elena caroled. â€Å"If you find Lady Ulma, tel her Elena’s coming, but she’s getting washed up first.†She didn’t actual y dive into the pearl pink steaming water, but she got onto the second step down and let herself slide from there. Instantly, she was immersed in delicious heat that seeped straight into her body, pul ing some magic string that relaxed al her muscles at once. Perfumes suffused the air. She flung her wet hair back and saw Bonnie laughing at her. â€Å"So you got out of your hole and you’ve been here wal owing in luxury while we’ve been worried sick?†Elena couldn’t help but hear the way her voice went up at the end, making it a question. â€Å"No, I got picked up by some people, and – â€Å"Bonnie broke off. â€Å"Well†¦the first few days were tough, but never mind. Thank God we got to Lady Ulma’s in the end. Want a bath brush? Some soap that smel s just like roses?† Elena was looking at Bonnie with slightly narrowed eyes. She knew that Bonnie would do just about anything for Damon. That included covering up for him. Delicately, al the while enjoying the brushes and unguents and many kinds of soaps laid out on a shelf for easy reach, she began an inquisition. Stefan got out of the steamy room before he was soaking wet. Bonnie was safe and Elena was happy. He found he had stepped into another room, in which were a number of couches made of some soft spongy material. For drying? Massage? Who knew? The next room he entered had gas lanterns that were turned high enough to rival electrical light. Here were three more couches – he had no idea what for – a ful -length silvered-glass mirror, and smal er mirrors in front of chairs. Obviously a place for makeup and beautifying. This last room opened onto a hal way. Stefan stepped out and hesitated, spreading delicate tendrils of Power in different directions, hoping to find Damon before Damon noticed his presence in the estate. The Master Key had proved that it could overcome the fact that he hadn’t been invited here. That meant that maybe he could†¦ At that moment he got a hit, and withdrew his probe immediately, startled. He stared down the long corridor. He could actual y see Damon, pacing in the room at the end, talking to someone Stefan couldn’t see behind the door. Stefan crept very quietly down the hal way, stalking. He made it to the door without his brother even noticing, and there he saw that the person Damon was talking to was a woman wearing what looked like buckskin breeches and shirt, who had weathered skin, and a general aura of being more at home outside civilization than inside it. Damon was saying, â€Å"Make sure there are enough warm clothes for the girl. She’s not exactly hardy, you know – â€Å" â€Å"Then where are you taking her – and why?†Stefan asked, leaning against the doorjamb. He had the good fortune to once – just this once – take Damon unaware. His brother glanced up, and then jerked like a startled cat. It was priceless to watch Damon scrambling for a mask until he decided on the fa?ade of absent amiability. Stefan guessed that no one had ever put so much effort into walking over to a desk chair, sitting down, and forcing himself to lounge. â€Å"Well, well! Little brother! You dropped in for a visit! How†¦ nice. What a pity, though, that I’m practical y running out the door on a journey, and there’s no room for you.† At this point the weather-beaten woman who had been taking notes – and who had risen when Stefan entered the room – spoke up. â€Å"Oh, no, my lord. The thurgs won’t mind the extra weight of this gentleman. They probably won’t notice it. If his baggage can be ready by tomorrow you can start out in the early morning just as you planned.† Damon gave her his best â€Å"shut up or die†glare. She shut up. Through clenched teeth, Damon managed to say, â€Å"This is Pelat. She’s the coordinator of our little expedition. Hel o, Pelat. Good-bye, Pelat. You may go.† â€Å"As you wish, my lord.† Pelat bowed and left. â€Å"Aren’t you taking this ‘my lord’thing a bit too seriously?†Stefan asked. â€Å"And what is that costume you’re wearing?† â€Å"It’s the uniform of the captain of the guard of Madame le Princess Jessalyn D’Aubigne,†Damon said coldly. â€Å"You got a job?† â€Å"It was a position.†Damon bared his teeth. â€Å"And it’s none of your business.† â€Å"Got your canines back, too, I see.† â€Å"And that’s none of your business either. But if you want me to knock you out and trample over your undead body, I’l be delighted to oblige.† Something was wrong, Stefan thought. Damon should be through the taunting phase and be actual y trampling on him by now. It only made sense if†¦ â€Å"I’ve already spoken to Bonnie,†he said. And so he had, to ask where he was. But to a guilty mind, apparent foreknowledge often worked wonders. And Damon hastily said exactly what Stefan hoped he wouldn’t. â€Å"I can explain!† â€Å"Oh, God,†Stefan said. â€Å"If she’d just done as I told her – â€Å" â€Å"While you were off becoming a princess’s captain of the guard? And she was – where?† â€Å"She was safe, at least! But, no, she had to go out into the street and then to that shop – â€Å" â€Å"Shocking! She actual y walked in the street?† Damon ground his teeth. â€Å"You don’t know how it is around here – or how the slave trade works. Every day – â€Å" Stefan slammed both hands on the desk, now truly angry. â€Å"She was picked up by slavers? While you were sleazing around with a princess?† â€Å"Princess Jessalyn does not sleaze,†Damon replied icily. â€Å"Nor do I. And anyway it al turned out to be a good thing because now we know where the Seven Kitsune Treasures are.† â€Å"What treasures? And who cares about treasures when there’s a town being destroyed by kitsune?† Damon opened his mouth, shut it, then looked narrowly at Stefan. â€Å"You said that you’d talked to Bonnie about al this.† â€Å"I did talk to Bonnie,†Stefan said flatly. â€Å"I said hel o.† Damon’s dark eyes flared. For a moment Stefan thought he was going to snarl or start a fight. But then, through clenched teeth, he said, â€Å"It’s al for the damned town, don’t you see that? Those treasures include the largest star bal ever to be fil ed with Power. And that Power may be enough to save Fel ‘s Church. At least to stop its total annihilation. Maybe to even clear out every malach that exists and destroy Shinichi and Misao with a single blow. Is that noble enough for you, little brother? Is it reason enough?† â€Å"But taking Bonnie – â€Å" â€Å"You stay with her here if you like! Spend your lives here! I might mention that without her I would never have been able to set up an expedition, and that she’s determined to go. Besides, we’re not coming back this way. There has to be an easier route from the Gatehouse to Earth. We wouldn’t survive coming back, so you’d better hope like hel that there is one.† Stefan was surprised. He had never heard his brother speak with such passion about anything that involved humans. He was about to reply, when behind him there came a scream of pure, unadulterated rage. It was frightening – and worrying, too, because Stefan would recognize that voice anywhere, anytime. It was Elena’s. How to cite The Return: Midnight Chapter 26, Essay examples

Different Types Of Salmon Aquaculture †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Different Types Of Salmon Aquaculture. Answer: Introduction Salmon is a ray finned fish which to the family of Salmonidae. There are other fishes that belong to the same family, like whitefish, grayling, char, trout. Salmon is natively found in the tributaries of Pacific Ocean and North Atlantic Ocean. The species that are found in the Atlantic Ocean belong to the genus Salmo and the species that are found in the Pacific Ocean belong to the genus Oncorhynchus. Salmon was introduced in North America and also in South America, within non-native environments of Great Lakes and Patagonia respectively (Aas et al., 2010). The fish is intensively farmed in different parts of the world. An adult Atlantic salmon weighs around 10 pounds, while a king Salmon weighs around 23 pounds. However, fishes weighing around 50 to 80 pounds are also common. There are different types of Salmon like Cham Salmon, Coho salmon, Sockeye salmon, and pink salmon. Salmon fish are anadromous, which means that the fishes lay their eggs in freshwater and then return to the oc ean. The fishes again return to the freshwater to reproduce. Different species of Salmon exhibit the anadromous character, while other species of Salmon exhibit the freshwater characteristics (Miramichi Salmon Association, 2018). This study is based on the discussion on the physiological and the environmental factors involved in smoltification in salmon; and how the manipulation of these factors revolutionized the salmon aquaculture. Osmoregulation In order to understand osmoregulation (active regulation), it is necessary to discuss about the osmosis (passive regulation). Cells contain a lot of different solutes (polysaccharides, proteins, ions) and water, which creates a specific concentration inside the cell membrane. The membrane is Semi permeable which means that, it allows only water to pass through it and does not allow the solutes. The law of osmosis can be seen when a cell is kept inside solution exhibiting a different concentration. Due to osmotic pressure water moves into the solution from a high concentration to a region of low concentration via a semipermeable membrane. The movement of water takes place to balance the concentration (Bbc.co.uk, 2018). Maintaining a homeostatic balance is a big issue for the fishes in both the marine water and fresh water, because the metabolic processes inside the body of a fish occur specifically in certain chemical and physical environment. To keep up with the constantly with the internal environment, a continuous adaptation with respect to the concentration of oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose, calcium ion, potassium ion, sodium ion, pH and temperature. The main problem of the fishes is the osmoregulation. Active regulation of the osmotic pressure in order to maintain the concentration of the salts and the fluid balance is called osmoregulation (Whittamore, 2012). Firstly the freshwater fishes, the salt concentration inside the body is higher in comparison to the surrounding water, thus water moves in to the body because of osmosis. If there is no regulation at this point, then the fishes would swell up. In order to compensate this, kidneys produce a large amount of urine and this signifies loss of salt from the body. Thus to compensate for this loss, specialized cells in gills (called chloride cells) absorbs ion from water and is directly transported to the blood stream (Whittamore, 2012). The marine fishes face a different situation, the concentration of salt in the blood is much lower in comparison to the sea water. Does fishes constantly lose water and build up salt concentration inside the body. To compensate for the loss of water from the body fishes drink a lot of water. Due to the small size of the kidney and the inability to excrete a large amount of urine, marine fishes excrete salt from the gills. The gills have specialized cells called to chloride cells which function in just the opposite way the gills in freshwater fishes function (Edwards Marshall, 2012). Smoltification Smoltification is a process in which the behavioral, morphological and physiological changes that a young salmon fish undergoes during migration from freshwater to a saltwater region. Considering the life cycle of a salmon fish, it starts its life in the freshwater and it gets prepared to enter in to the oceanic water where the concentration of salt is high. Three important changes take place at this stage of the life cycle. Firstly, the fish starts to drink a lot of water. Secondly, the urine production reduces to great extent by the kidneys. Thirdly, the molecular pumps or the chloride cells in the gills function reversely. Which means that, the chloride cells pumps sodium out instead of absorbing it. When the fishes reenter in to the freshwater, the body of the salmon fishes starts to acclimatize automatically. The fishes stay within the estuarial zone in order to get acclimatized (Lerner, Sheridan McCormick, 2012). The process of smoltification also occurs in the other species like sharks. In the estuaries, where the sea water meets the freshwater changes in concentration occur gradually. Sharks are known to move further in to the freshwater zone and the process of osmoregulation also occurs differently in comparison to the salmon. Sharks convert ammonia to urea and are capable of retaining it within the blood stream which is slightly more concentrated than the sea water. Through this way, the loss of water through the osmosis is prevented and the excess salt is excreted via the rectal gland. These processes are regulated by hormones and controlled by brain. Hormones like thyroid and cortisol are the effective regulators of osmotic pressure which influences the direction and the rate of the ions that are pumped through the chloride cells (Cramp, Hansen Franklin, 2015). Environmental factors affecting smoltification Contaminant exposure- It has recently been found that the change in water chemistry has a detrimental effect on the early marine survival and the process of smoltification. This can be attributed to the non-point source of industrial pollutants, exposure to trace heavy metal, mineral deposit drainage. In addition the trace heavy metal from the drainage of the mineral deposits, intensive forest areas, ranges and agricultural areas. This results into the movement of low level concentration of herbicides in to the rearing of the juvenile salmon (Solomon et al., 2013). Water temperature- In order to increase the growth and reduce the time required for the production of the smolts, elevated temperature is used. However, care must be taken because artificial temperatures potentially affect the process of smolting as well as the growth (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2018). Photoperiod- research has shown that there is a positive correlation with the behavioral and the physiological aspects with respect to the endocrine system. Because there is direct chemical link with the physiological and the environmental changes in fish. There is a strong link of the photoperiod with the seasonal cycle of growth in the juvenile salmon and the smolting process (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2018). Photoperiod control of smoltification Presently a major problem faced by salmon industry is that they are unable to produce and maintain a continuity in the product sizes in accordance to the market demand which are existing throughout the year. Such problems exist because fishes had introduced into the sea for a very short period of time during the early summer and the spring. Due to this the production is not even according to the size of the market and also results in an unavailability What the Fish products. At certain times of the year, the transfer of smolts into the ocean water has implications on the costing and the production on the smolts. Similar to spawning and maturation the smoltification timing is affected by the patterns of the season and day length changes. Extension cord compression of the annual rate of change of photoperiod leads to both the delay and advancement in the completion of smoltification. Photoperiods that change seasonally can be replaced by the combinations of constant short and long days . Bringing modifications in the combinations of short and long days as well as seasonal changes can effectively increase the production of smolts during several months of the year (Zydlewski, Stich McCormick, 2014). The major complications that arise with the manipulation of the photoperiod is the timing of the process. Similar to the process of reproduction which is controlled seasonally, the process of smolting is dependent on the endogenous clocks or mechanisms. Under the ambient conditions the endogenous clocks can be identified or determined through the seasonally changing day length. Under the modified light conditions, the different components of this system that include hypo osmoregulatory ability, body silvering, condition factor, factors that control growth will collectively affect the smoltification process. The components might get desynchronized and the probable effects are reflected in the poor rates of survival when transferred to see water. Manipulation of the photoperiod result in affecting the commercial viability of the fishes and affect the maturation of the pre and the post smolts. Thus, any alteration in the photoperiod result in the reduction of the number of smolts, reduc ed rates of survival when the smolts are transferred to the sea water affecting the early maturation and also cause vital problems for the production management of the grow out farms (Imsland, Handeland Stefansson, 2014). Environmental factors and the physiological processes involved in smoltification of salmon Environmental factors- contaminant exposure is one of the prime environmental factor which is affecting the smoltification. The gill ATPase enzyme present in the salmon fishes is highly sensible to the levels of the trace heavy metals dissolved in water. The exposure to the copper during the transformation of parr-smolt can potentially inactivate the gill-ATPase enzyme. The biological damage is not apparent unless the fish moves to the sea water. Just during this movement, the severe mortalities begin to occur. Another negative consequence of such a phenomenon is that the migratory also gets suppressed due to the inactivity of the gill ATPase. Cadmium levels of 4 microgram per liter in the freshwater also result in mortality when the coho smolts are transferred to the thirty percent sea water. Chromium or nickel although does not affect the migratory behavior, but exposure to mercury severely affects the migratory behavior. Other implication of mercury exposure can be related to the malformed development of the embryos when the exposure is only of 2.5 microgram per liter. The herbicide concentration also increase into the waterbodies due to the surface run off from the agricultural fields, and the accumulation of herbicide in to the body of the coho salmon smolts resulted in hampered migratory behavior (Thorstad et al., 2012). Water temperature and the rearing temperature have been found to be directly impacting the gill ATPase activity and the hypoosmoregulatory activity during the process of smolting. It has been seen in certain species that increase in temperature accelerates the onset of smolting and on the other hand also delays the time period of desmoltification. Coho salmon at the 6 degree Celsius shows rise in the gill ATPase activity, and a precocious development is found at 2o degree Celsius. However, the process of desmoltification enhances due to the increase in temperature. Not all species of salmon show positive responses to the temperature rise. Steelhead trout are found to be potentially affected by the elevated level of temperature rise, while temperature above 13 degree Celsius inhibits smolting. The Atlantic salmon are not similar to the steel head trout. When the temperature rises around 10 degree Celsius, the activity of the downstream activity of salmon rises (Bjrnsson, Stefansson M cCormick, 2011). Photoperiod plays a significant role in the migratory behavior and the development of the smolt characteristics. The rate of change of the photoperiod played an important part in the modification of the periods of smolting. It has been found that presmolts kept in 7 hour dark period and 17 hour light significantly increases the gill ATPase activity and the plasma thyroxine. However, prolonged periods of exposure to the day light inhibit smolting and growth. Physiological process- According to the normal life history of Salmon, it migrates as juveniles from fresh water into the sea. Atlantic salmon undergoes transformational changes to get adapted to the oceanic life. The parr-smolt transformation involves both the physiological and the morphological changes in order to get acclimatized to the high saline conditions in sea water. The development of smolt is controlled by both the environmental and developmental information. Due to the exposure of increased day length, components of neuroendocrine axis become sensitive. Plasma levels of growth hormone increases due to the activation half right brain pituitary axis. This results in increased levels plasma levels of growth hormone. It has also been found that the levels of Plasma cortisol increases, and this hormones control the biochemical and cellular changes inside the gill. This increases the gill sodium potassium ATPase activity and results in increased salt tolerance. Triiodothyronine , thyroxine, thyroid hormones increase during the smolt development. These changes are actively thought to alter morphological and behavioral characteristics of the fish (McCormick et al., 2013). Salmon aquaculture Photoperiod is an important determinant in initiating sexual maturation in the salmon fishes. More than the specific day length, the direction of photoperiod plays a major role in orchestrating sexual maturity and reproduction. Prolonged exposure to long day lengths increased the attainment of sexual maturity in this fishes. Aquaculture of the salmon fishes gives a better control over the adverse environmental conditions. Aquaculture provides a better opportunity to alter the photoperiod easily and helps in the production cycle. While at the same time gives a better control over certain environmental variables like water temperature. Water temperature on the other hand is one of the important environmental parameter which directly influences the physiology of the fishes. The internal temperature of the fish is directly dependent on the external ambient temperature. Physiological development of eggs and larvae, egg hatching, time of spawning, growth rate, metabolic rate all her direct ly related to the natural environment and water temperature. It has been found that aquaculture of salmon at temperatures ranging 2 to 16 degree Celsius effectively increases the growth rate (Thyholdt, 2014). Conclusion Thus, from the above discussion it can be concluded that the life cycle of salmon fish is directly influenced by the environmental factors like water temperature, photoperiod, herbicides and traces of heavy metal. Salmon fishes can survive both in freshwater and sea water which makes it a complex fish for aquaculture. In order to aquaculture salmon fishes, several parameters like water temperature, photoperiod and also the environmental conditions must be kept at check. Only after keeping all the parameters at optimal conditions can favor the growth of salmon fishes rapidly. References Aas, ., Klemetsen, A., Einum, S., Skurdal, J. (Eds.). (2010). Atlantic salmon ecology. John Wiley Sons. Bbc.co.uk. (2018). BBC - GCSE Bitesize: Osmosis in cells. Bbc.co.uk. 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